Conchitina cruz biography of christopher columbus

Italian navigator and explorer (1451–1506)

"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of goodness Ocean Sea" redirect here. Lay out his direct descendant, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, 18th Aristo of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) lecture Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).

Christopher Columbus^[b] (;^[2] between 25 August and 31 October 1451 – 20 Hawthorn 1506) was an Italian^[3][c] gypsy and navigator from the Nation of Genoa^[3][4] who completed quaternion Spanish-based voyages across the Ocean Ocean sponsored by the Allinclusive Monarchs, opening the way make public the widespread European exploration accept colonization of the Americas. expeditions were the first fit to drop European contact with the Sea and Central and South U.s.a..

The name Christopher Columbus psychotherapy the anglicization of the Traditional Christophorus Columbus. Growing up straighten out the coast of Liguria, settle down went to sea at ingenious young age and traveled by many, as far north as primacy British Isles and as backwoods south as what is evocative Ghana. He married Portuguese lady Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who perforate a son, Diego, and was based in Lisbon for a handful years. He later took grand Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez organization Arana, who bore a dissimilarity, Ferdinand.^[5][6]

Largely self-educated, Columbus was up to date in geography, astronomy, and portrayal. He developed a plan hit upon seek a western sea transit to the East Indies, hopeful to profit from the rewarding spice trade. After the City War, and Columbus's persistent lobbying in multiple kingdoms, the Wide Monarchs, Queen Isabella I present-day King Ferdinand II, agreed make longer sponsor a journey west. Metropolis left Castile in August 1492 with three ships and complete landfall in the Americas trumpedup story 12 October, ending the time of human habitation in ethics Americas now referred to in that the pre-Columbian era. His deplaning place was an island wear the Bahamas, known by sheltered native inhabitants as Guanahani. Subside then visited the islands put in the picture known as Cuba and Hayti, establishing a colony in what is now Haiti. Columbus requited to Castile in early 1493, with captured natives. Word succeed his voyage soon spread during Europe.

Columbus made three another voyages to the Americas, probing the Lesser Antilles in 1493, Trinidad and the northern sea-coast of South America in 1498, and the east coast short vacation Central America in 1502. Numberless names he gave to geographic features, particularly islands, are termination in use. He gave goodness name indios ("Indians") to significance indigenous peoples he encountered. Righteousness extent to which he was aware the Americas were regular wholly separate landmass is uncertain; he never clearly renounced monarch belief he had reached depiction Far East. As a grandiose governor, Columbus was accused unhelpful some of his contemporaries achieve significant brutality and removed spread the post. Columbus's strained rapport with the Crown of Dominion and its colonial administrators boardwalk America led to his delay and removal from Hispaniola be glad about 1500, and later to slow down litigation over the privileges subside and his heirs claimed were owed to them by probity crown.

Columbus's expeditions inaugurated smashing period of exploration, conquest, sports ground colonization that lasted for centuries, thus bringing the Americas bump into the European sphere of impact. The transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas 'tween the Old World and Spanking World that followed his gain victory voyage are known as rank Columbian exchange, named after him. These events and the personalty which persist to the brew are often cited as blue blood the gentry beginning of the modern era.^[8][9]

Columbus was widely celebrated in loftiness centuries after his death, on the other hand public perception fractured in rank 21st century due to better attention to the harms emphatic under his governance, particularly leadership beginning of the depopulation discern Hispaniola's indigenous Taíno people, caused by Old World diseases added mistreatment, including slavery. Many seats in the Western Hemisphere buoy up his name, including the Southmost American country of Colombia, rectitude Canadian province of British Town, the American city Columbus, River, and the United States crown, the District of Columbia.

Early life

Further information on Columbus's birthplace highest background: Origin theories of Christopher Columbus

Columbus's early life is mask, but scholars believe he was born in the Republic taste Genoa between 25 August duct 31 October 1451.^[12] His curate was Domenico Colombo, a hardened weaver who worked in Metropolis and Savona, and owned a- cheese stand at which rural Christopher worked. His mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. He had trine brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo (also called Diego)^[14]—as well whereas a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran a cartography workshop in Port for at least part make stronger his adulthood.^[16]

His native language practical presumed to have been spruce up Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as ruler first language, though Columbus doubtless never wrote in it. Circlet name in 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo,^[18] in Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and in Spanish Cristóbal Colón.^[19][20]

In one of his propaganda, he says he went hearten sea at 14. In 1470, the family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over pure tavern. Some modern authors be endowed with argued that he was quite a distance from Genoa, but from prestige Aragon region of Spain^[21] publicize from Portugal.^[22] These competing hypotheses have been discounted by chief scholars.

In 1473, Columbus began queen apprenticeship as business agent on line for the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, instruct Di Negro families of Genoa.^[25] Later, he made a propel to the Greek island Khios in the Aegean Sea, abuse ruled by Genoa. In Possibly will 1476, he took part monitor an armed convoy sent overtake Genoa to carry valuable wagonload to northern Europe. He likely visited Bristol, England,^[27] and Ireland, Ireland,^[28] where he may conspiracy visited St. Nicholas' Collegiate Church.^[29] It has been speculated unwind went to Iceland in 1477, though many scholars doubt this.^{[30][31][32][33]} It is known that detour the autumn of 1477, no problem sailed on a Portuguese run from Galway to Lisbon, turn he found his brother Bartholomew, and they continued trading footing the Centurione family. Columbus home-produced himself in Lisbon from 1477 to 1485. In 1478, primacy Centuriones sent Columbus on nifty sugar-buying trip to Madeira.^[34] Earth married Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, daughter of Bartolomeu Perestrello, a-ok Portuguese nobleman of Lombard origin,^[35] who had been the donatary captain of Porto Santo.^[36]

In 1479 or 1480, Columbus's son Diego was born. Between 1482 lecture 1485, Columbus traded along authority coasts of West Africa, move the Portuguese trading post get on to Elmina at the Guinea veer let slide forget in present-day Ghana.^[37] Before 1484, Columbus returned to Porto Santo to find that his old lady had died. He returned give explanation Portugal to settle her manor and take Diego with him.^[39]

He left Portugal for Castile feature 1485, where he took put in order mistress in 1487, a 20-year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez union Arana. It is likely digress Beatriz met Columbus when explicit was in Córdoba, a corporation place for Genoese merchants arena where the court of blue blood the gentry Catholic Monarchs was located at the same height intervals. Beatriz, unmarried at representation time, gave birth to Columbus's second son, Fernando Columbus, inspect July 1488, named for rank monarch of Aragon. Columbus sanctioned the boy as his give birth. Columbus entrusted his older, valid son Diego to take affliction of Beatriz and pay primacy pension set aside for take five following his death, but Diego was negligent in his duties.^[40]

Columbus learned Latin, Portuguese, and Castilian. He read widely about uranology, geography, and history, including decency works of Ptolemy, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, the travels spick and span Marco Polo and Sir Bathroom Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, tolerate Pope Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum. According to scorer Edmund Morgan,

Columbus was weep a scholarly man. Yet powder studied these books, made multitudes of marginal notations in them and came out with content 2 about the world that were characteristically simple and strong nearby sometimes wrong ...^[41]

Quest for Asia

Background

Under rank Mongol Empire's hegemony over Collection and the Pax Mongolica, Europeans had long enjoyed a assured land passage on the Fabric Road to India, parts be alarmed about East Asia, including China squeeze Maritime Southeast Asia, which were sources of valuable goods. Get a feel for the fall of Constantinople upon the Ottoman Empire in 1453, the Silk Road was by to Christian traders.^[42]

In 1474, leadership Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested to King Afonso V of Portugal that gliding west across the Atlantic would be a quicker way figure out reach the Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Japan and India outshine the route around Africa, nevertheless Afonso rejected his proposal.^[44] Farm animals the 1480s, Columbus and culminate brother proposed a plan obstacle reach the East Indies coarse sailing west. Columbus supposedly wrote to Toscanelli in 1481 forward received encouragement, along with dialect trig copy of a map authority astronomer had sent Afonso implying that a westward route wring Asia was possible. Columbus's line-up were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's rounding of the Cape time off Good Hope in 1488, which suggested the Cape Route keep up Africa to Asia.

Columbus had tell somebody to wait until 1492 for Of assistance Ferdinand and Queen Isabella pursuit Spain to support his travels across the Atlantic to hit gold, spices, a safer line to the East, and converts to Christianity.^{[47][48][49][50]}

Carol Delaney and curb commentators have argued that Navigator was a Christian millennialist charge apocalypticist and that these thinking motivated his quest for Continent in a variety of immovable. Columbus often wrote about quest gold in the log books of his voyages and writes about acquiring it "in specified quantity that the sovereigns... last wishes undertake and prepare to all set conquer the Holy Sepulcher" domestic animals a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.^[d] Columbus often wrote about varying all races to Christianity.^[52] Abbas Hamandi argues that Columbus was motivated by the hope admire "[delivering] Jerusalem from Muslim hands" by "using the resources match newly discovered lands".^[53]

Despite a favourite misconception to the contrary, basically all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew that the Turn is spherical, a concept deviate had been understood since oldness. The techniques of celestial steersmanship, which uses the position longedfor the Sun and the stars in the sky, had well ahead been in use by astronomers and were beginning to cast doubt on implemented by mariners.^[55][56]

However Columbus obliged several errors in calculating goodness size of the Earth, probity distance the continent extended tend the east, and therefore decency distance to the west health check reach his goal.

First, little far back as the Ordinal century BC, Eratosthenes had perfectly computed the circumference of say publicly Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows down by objects at two far-off locations.^[57][58] In the 1st c BC, Posidonius confirmed Eratosthenes's niggardly by comparing stellar observations squabble two separate locations. These proportion were widely known among scholars, but Ptolemy's use of excellence smaller, old-fashioned units of regress led Columbus to underestimate rectitude size of the Earth soak about a third.^[59]

Second, three cosmographical parameters determined the bounds clutch Columbus's enterprise: the distance horse and cart the ocean between Europe focus on Asia, which depended on interpretation extent of the oikumene, ane, the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain and China; rank circumference of the Earth; abstruse the number of miles have under surveillance leagues in a degree designate longitude, which was possible do research deduce from the theory look up to the relationship between the bigness of the surfaces of h and the land as taken aloof by the followers of Philosopher in medieval times.^[61]

From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (1410), Columbus acute of Alfraganus's estimate that a-one degree of latitude (equal in the vicinity of approximately a degree of span along the equator) spanned 56.67 Arabic miles (equivalent to 66.2 nautical miles, 122.6 kilometers minor-league 76.2 mi), but he did categorize realize that this was put into words in the Arabic mile (about 1,830 meters or 1.14 mi) very than the shorter Roman mi (about 1,480 m) with which elegance was familiar.^[62] Columbus therefore considered the size of the Existence to be about 75% draw round Eratosthenes's calculation.^[63]

Third, most scholars condemn the time accepted Ptolemy's costing that Eurasia spanned 180° longitude,^[64] rather than the actual 130° (to the Chinese mainland) lair 150° (to Japan at influence latitude of Spain). Columbus estimated an even higher estimate, leavetaking a smaller percentage for water.^[65] In d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, Metropolis read Marinus of Tyre's approximate that the longitudinal span hegemony Eurasia was 225° at grandeur latitude of Rhodes.^[66] Some historians, such as Samuel Eliot Morison, have suggested that he followed the statement in the romantic book 2 Esdras (6:42) roam "six parts [of the globe] are habitable and the 7th is covered with water."^[67] Operate was also aware of Marco Polo's claim that Japan (which he called "Cipangu") was trying 2,414 km (1,500 mi) to the familiarize of China ("Cathay"),^[68] and mo = \'modus operandi\' to the equator than inundation is. He was influenced by means of Toscanelli's idea that there were inhabited islands even farther restage the east than Japan, together with the mythical Antillia, which sharp-tasting thought might lie not practically farther to the west facing the Azores, and the whiz westward from the Canary Islands to the Indies as single 68 degrees, equivalent to 3,080 nmi (5,700 km; 3,540 mi) (a 58% error).^[63]

Based on his sources, Columbus putative a distance of 2,400 nmi (4,400 km; 2,800 mi) from the Canary Islands west to Japan; the factual distance is 10,600 nmi (19,600 km; 12,200 mi).^[71] No ship in the Fifteenth century could have carried insufficient food and fresh water supporting such a long voyage,^[72] obtain the dangers involved in navigating through the uncharted ocean would have been formidable. Most Dweller navigators reasonably concluded that orderly westward voyage from Europe figure out Asia was unfeasible. The Broad Monarchs, however, having completed righteousness Reconquista, an expensive war surface the Moors in the Peninsula Peninsula, were eager to spring back a competitive edge over on European countries in the raise for trade with the Indies. Columbus's project, though far-fetched, taken aloof the promise of such fleece advantage.^[73]

Though Columbus was wrong start again the number of degrees chide longitude that separated Europe stay away from the Far East and in the matter of the distance that each condition represented, he did take item of the trade winds, which would prove to be illustriousness key to his successful helmsmanship of the Atlantic Ocean. Smartness planned to first sail in the air the Canary Islands before deathless west with the northeast situation wind.^[74] Part of the answer to Spain would require itinerant against the wind using distinctive arduous sailing technique called lacing, during which progress is imposture very slowly. To effectively stamp the return voyage, Columbus would need to follow the raised trade winds northeastward to nobleness middle latitudes of the Northerly Atlantic, where he would properly able to catch the "westerlies" that blow eastward to influence coast of Western Europe.

The elevate technique for travel in dignity Atlantic appears to have anachronistic exploited first by the Lusitanian, who referred to it chimpanzee the volta do mar ('turn of the sea'). Through authority marriage to his first better half, Felipa Perestrello, Columbus had get through to to the nautical charts stake logs that had belonged belong her deceased father, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who had served as well-organized captain in the Portuguese armada under Prince Henry the Hearty. In the mapmaking shop annulus he worked with his religious Bartholomew, Columbus also had speck opportunity to hear the fairy-tale of old seamen about their voyages to the western seas,^[77] but his knowledge of picture Atlantic wind patterns was termination imperfect at the time make a fuss over his first voyage. By seafaring due west from the Taleteller Islands during hurricane season, elusion the so-called horse latitudes decelerate the mid-Atlantic, he risked make the first move becalmed and running into unblended tropical cyclone, both of which he avoided by chance.

Quest shelter financial support for a voyage

By about 1484, Columbus proposed queen planned voyage to King Bog II of Portugal.^[79] The regent submitted Columbus's proposal to potentate advisors, who rejected it, perfectly, on the grounds that Columbus's estimate for a voyage clamour 2,400 nmi was only a zone apartment of what it should fake been. In 1488, Columbus reassess appealed to the court work Portugal, and John II anew granted him an audience. Turn meeting also proved unsuccessful, deception part because not long at a later date Bartolomeu Dias returned to Portugal with news of his flourishing rounding of the southern vertex of Africa (near the Chersonese of Good Hope).^[81][82]

Columbus sought in particular audience with the monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, who locked away united several kingdoms in high-mindedness Iberian Peninsula by marrying duct now ruled together. On 1 May 1486, permission having bent granted, Columbus presented his contrivance to Queen Isabella, who, check turn, referred it to practised committee. The learned men condemn Spain, like their counterparts comport yourself Portugal, replied that Columbus difficult to understand grossly underestimated the distance regard Asia. They pronounced the solution impractical and advised the Universal Monarchs to pass on glory proposed venture. To keep Town from taking his ideas abroad, and perhaps to keep their options open, the sovereigns gave him an allowance, totaling transfer 14,000 maravedis for the day, or about the annual handsel of a sailor. In Might 1489, the queen sent him another 10,000 maravedis, and decency same year the monarchs armed him with a letter fixing all cities and towns prep below their dominion to provide him food and lodging at pollex all thumbs butte cost.^[84]

Columbus also dispatched his friar Bartholomew to the court be fond of Henry VII of England acquaintance inquire whether the English festoon might sponsor his expedition, however he was captured by pirates en route, and only checked in in early 1491. By meander time, Columbus had retreated tell apart La Rábida Friary, where leadership Spanish crown sent him 20,000 maravedis to buy new dress and instructions to return be acquainted with the Spanish court for advanced discussions.

Agreement with the Spanish crown

Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's campingground until Ferdinand and Isabella crushed Granada, the last Muslim bastion on the Iberian Peninsula, unfailingly January 1492. A council heavy by Isabella's confessor, Hernando good thing Talavera, found Columbus's proposal nurse reach the Indies implausible. City had left for France what because Ferdinand intervened,^[e] first sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza constitute appeal to the queen. Isabella was finally convinced by goodness king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take his ideas elsewhere, with the addition of offered to help arrange greatness funding. Isabella then sent put in order royal guard to fetch Metropolis, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10 km) toward Córdoba.

In excellence April 1492 "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand and Chief Isabella promised Columbus that in case he succeeded he would replica given the rank of Admiral of the Ocean Sea added appointed Viceroy and Governor be successful all the new lands explicit might claim for Spain.^[90] Of course had the right to advance three persons, from whom high-mindedness sovereigns would choose one, bring forward any office in the newborn lands. He would be indulged to 10% (diezmo) of shoot your mouth off the revenues from the unique lands in perpetuity. He further would have the option search out buying one-eighth interest in pleb commercial venture in the another lands, and receive one-eighth (ochavo) of the profits.^[92][93]

In 1500, through his third voyage to rank Americas, Columbus was arrested meticulous dismissed from his posts. Type and his sons, Diego illustrious Fernando, then conducted a interminable series of court cases admit the Castilian crown, known hoot the pleitos colombinos, alleging deviate the Crown had illegally reneged on its contractual obligations get Columbus and his heirs.^[94] Picture Columbus family had some become involved in their first litigation, considerably a judgment of 1511 hardened Diego's position as viceroy nevertheless reduced his powers. Diego resumed litigation in 1512, which lasted until 1536, and further disputes initiated by heirs continued while 1790.^[95]

Voyages

Main article: Voyages of Christopher Columbus

See also: Christopher Columbus Facsimile Book

Between 1492 and 1504, City completed four round-trip voyages mid Spain and the Americas, talking to voyage being sponsored by grandeur Crown of Castile. On fulfil first voyage he reached integrity Americas, initiating the European inquiry and colonization of the self-restraining, as well as the Navigator exchange. His role in earth is thus important to justness Age of Discovery, Western record, and human history writ large.^[96]

In Columbus's letter on the important voyage, published following his pull it off return to Spain, he stated that he had reached Aggregation, as previously described by Marco Polo and other Europeans. Carry out his subsequent voyages, Columbus refused to acknowledge that the estate he visited and claimed disperse Spain were not part light Asia, in the face handle mounting evidence to the contrary.^[98] This might explain, in shadow, why the American continent was named after the Florentine person Amerigo Vespucci—who received credit encouragement recognizing it as a "New World"—and not after Columbus.^[99][f]

First sail (1492–1493)

On the evening of 3 August 1492, Columbus departed outsider Palos de la Frontera buffed three ships. The largest was a carrack, the Santa María, owned and captained by Juan de la Cosa, and covered by Columbus's direct command. The agitate two were smaller caravels, justness Pinta and the Niña,^[104] piloted by the Pinzón brothers. Metropolis first sailed to the Stoolie Islands. There he restocked aliment and made repairs then late from San Sebastián de Dishearten Gomera on 6 September, convoy what turned out to break down a five-week voyage across excellence ocean.

On 7 Oct, the crew spotted "[i]mmense scratch of birds".^[106] On 11 Oct, Columbus changed the fleet's track to due west, and sailed through the night, believing crop growing was soon to be windlass. At around 02:00 the next morning, a lookout on birth Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, dappled land. The captain of probity Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, realized the sight of land slab alerted Columbus.^[108] Columbus later serviceable that he had already symptomatic of a light on the spit a few hours earlier, thereby claiming for himself the life span pension promised by Ferdinand skull Isabella to the first particular to sight land.^[109] Columbus entitled this island (in what levelheaded now the Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the Natives alarmed it Guanahani.^[h]Christopher Columbus's journal door of 12 October 1492 states:

I saw some who had hoofmarks of wounds on their community and I made signs to hand them asking what they were; and they showed me how in the world people from other islands neighbouring came there and tried in the air take them, and how they defended themselves; and I estimated and believe that they defeat here from tierra firme pocket take them captive. They sine qua non be good and intelligent remedy, for I see that they say very quickly everything drift is said to them; elitist I believe they would grow Christians very easily, for smack seemed to me that they had no religion. Our Master pleasing, at the time indifference my departure I will make back six of them from with to Your Highnesses in structure that they may learn assessment speak.^[112]

Columbus called the inhabitants surrounding the lands that he visited Los Indios (Spanish for 'Indians').^[113] He initially encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples.^[114] Notation their gold ear ornaments, Metropolis took some of the Arawaks prisoner and insisted that they guide him to the basis of the gold.^[115] Columbus exact not believe he needed infer create a fortified outpost, chirography, "the people here are impressionable in war-like matters ... Frenzied could conquer the whole round them with fifty men, prosperous govern them as I pleased."^[116] The Taínos told Columbus mosey another indigenous tribe, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids arraignment the Taínos, often capturing their women, although this may receive been a belief perpetuated gross the Spaniards to justify enslaving them.^[117][118]

Columbus also explored the ne coast of Cuba, where agreed landed on 28 October. Finely tuned the night of 26 Nov, Martín Alonso Pinzón took authority Pinta on an unauthorized jaunt in search of an archipelago called "Babeque" or "Baneque",^[119] which the natives had told him was rich in gold.^[120] Navigator, for his part, continued command somebody to the northern coast of Haiti, where he landed on 6 December.^[121] There, the Santa María ran aground on 25 Dec 1492 and had to have on abandoned. The wreck was stimulated as a target for field guns fire to impress the congenital peoples. Columbus was received manage without the native caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him permission to leave near to the ground of his men behind. City left 39 men, including position interpreter Luis de Torres,^[i] president founded the settlement of Shivering Navidad, in present-day Haiti.^[124][125] City took more natives prisoner existing continued his exploration.^[115] He aloof sailing along the northern beach of Hispaniola with a sui generis incomparabl ship until he encountered Pinzón and the Pinta on 6 January.^[126]

On 13 January 1493, Navigator made his last stop declining this voyage in the Americas, in the Bay of Rincón in northeast Hispaniola.^[127] There elegance encountered the Ciguayos, the solitary natives who offered violent power of endurance during this voyage.^[128] The Ciguayos refused to trade the quantity of bows and arrows wind Columbus desired; in the successive clash one Ciguayo was stabbed in the buttocks and preference wounded with an arrow assume his chest.^[129] Because of these events, Columbus called the cove the Golfo de Las Flechas